Chapter 16 — Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

The chapter is called 'Turning Tides' because the 11th and 12th centuries brought major changes to India. Turkic invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni and later Muhammad Ghuri penetrated much deeper into north India than earlier Arab raids had done. These centuries also saw new kingdoms rise, great monuments built, and important scientific and philosophical ideas emerge — making it a period of both upheaval and lasting change.

Mahmud of Ghazni was the ruler of the Ghaznavids, whose capital was Ghazna (present-day Ghazni in Afghanistan). He defeated the Hindu Shahi rulers and then conducted 17 campaigns into India, plundering temples at Mathura (1018), Kannauj, and Somnath (1026) and taking away enormous treasures. Historians have noted that he was keen both on plunder — since large temples held immense wealth from centuries of devotees' offerings — and on spreading his version of Islam. He died in 1030 in Ghazni at the age of 58.

The Hindu Shahis were a powerful dynasty that ruled across present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, all the way to Punjab. They controlled the Khyber Pass — a key mountain route connecting Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent — and with the help of other Indian rulers resisted many invasion attempts. They were finally defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni in the first decade of the 11th century; their last ruler Anandapala was overcome in 1008 after a long battle in northern Punjab, giving Mahmud easy access to the Indus plains.

Al-Biruni was a Persian scholar from Khwarizm (present-day Uzbekistan) who was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, historian, and linguist. Around 1017, he accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni on his campaign into India, learned Sanskrit, and conversed with Indian scholars. He wrote an encyclopaedic survey of Indian religion, philosophy, literature, geography, and sciences, comparing Indian knowledge with Greek and Islamic traditions. He also compiled what he could gather from the works of Indian astronomers Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Brahmagupta, and translated Patanjali's Yogasutras into Arabic.

Bhaskaracharya (Bhaskara II), born in 1114, probably in present-day Maharashtra, wrote three famous works in Sanskrit. Lilavati uses lively riddles and problems to teach basic mathematics; Bijaganita covers more advanced algebra; and Siddhantashiromani ('Crown of Treatises on Mathematical Astronomy') deals with advanced astronomical calculations. Many scholars later wrote commentaries on these works, and several were translated into Persian during the Mughal period, giving Bhaskaracharya lasting influence in India and beyond.

The Chola kings were a powerful dynasty based in present-day Tamil Nadu. Rajaraja Chola I (who ruled from 985) conquered parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, the Maldives, and northern Sri Lanka, and built the magnificent Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur. His son Rajendra Chola I expanded the empire into Odisha and Bengal, took the title 'Gangaikondachola', and launched a naval expedition against the Shrivijaya Empire to protect Indian trade with China, even sending a diplomatic mission to China. Back home, the Cholas built roads, tanks, canals, and artificial lakes.

The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 between Muhammad Ghuri and the Rajput king Prithviraj III (Prithviraj Chauhan). A year earlier, in 1191, Prithviraj had defeated Muhammad Ghuri at the same place — Tarain (modern-day Taraori in Haryana). Muhammad returned with a larger army, and in the fierce second battle, he defeated and executed Prithviraj III. Muhammad then captured Delhi and, unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, sought permanent rule — leaving his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to hold and expand the conquered territory.

Mahmud of Ghazni conducted 17 raids into India — plundering temples and cities — and returned to Ghazni each time without establishing lasting rule beyond Punjab. Muhammad Ghuri, on the other hand, sought territorial conquest and long-term control. After defeating Prithviraj III in 1192, he captured Delhi and left trusted military commanders, most notably Qutb-ud-din Aibak, to consolidate and expand the Ghurid territory in India — which later became the basis of the Delhi Sultanate.

When Bakhtiyar Khilji conquered Bihar and Bengal, his forces destroyed the famous Buddhist monastery-university of Nalanda, along with Vikramashila, looting enormous wealth and slaughtering large numbers of monks. Nalanda's library, spread over three multi-storey buildings and containing lakhs of manuscripts, is said to have burned for months. Tibetan scholars fled back to Tibet carrying as many manuscripts as they could. There is a consensus among historians that this destruction of large centres of learning greatly hastened the decline of Buddhism in India.

Basaveshvara (also called Basavanna) was a royal minister at Kalyani in present-day Karnataka who gave up his position to become a social and religious reformer. He founded the Lingayat movement, which rejected caste distinctions and ritualism, and instead taught personal devotion and dedicated work, looking at the inner value of a person rather than their social rank. He promoted the equal spiritual potential of all men and women. He also established the anubhava mandapa — a meeting place where people from every social, economic, religious, or linguistic background could assemble to discuss life, values, and religion. His short poems in Kannada, known as vachanas, express his spiritual and ethical vision.

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The Hoysalas were a dynasty from southern Karnataka, with their capitals at Velapura (today's Belur) and Dvarasamudra (today's Halebidu). Under King Vishnuvardhana they broke away from Chalukya rule and extended their power over most of present-day Karnataka. They are best known for their unique style of temple architecture — intricately carved stone pillars, sculptures, and panels — and the temples at Belur and Halebidu are among three Hoysala temples recognised by UNESCO as World Heritage monuments. According to legend, the name 'Hoysala' comes from the words 'Poy, Sala' ('strike, Sala') — an ascetic's command to their founder Sala to kill a tiger.

The Khyber Pass is one of the main mountain passes through the Hindu Kush range, connecting the Indian subcontinent to Central Asia. For at least 2,500 years it served as both a major trade route — linking the subcontinent to Central Asia and beyond — and a path used by Buddhist scholars and monks travelling between regions. Many invaders of India used this pass to enter the subcontinent, which is why the Hindu Shahis' control of it was strategically very important; once Mahmud of Ghazni defeated them and took the pass, he had easy access to the Indus plains.

King Bhoja was the most famous ruler of the Paramara dynasty, ruling from 1010 for nearly half a century from his capital at Dhara (present-day Dhar in Madhya Pradesh). He is credited with founding the town of Bhojpur and constructing a vast lake for irrigation and water management — its remnant near present-day Bhopal is called 'Bhojtal', and the city name 'Bhopal' itself comes from 'Bhojpal' (the dam or fort of Bhoja). He also built the impressive Bhojeshwar Temple. A noted scholar, Bhoja wrote on architecture, town planning, governance, Sanskrit poetics, and other subjects, making his capital a renowned centre of learning.