Chapter 4 — New Beginnings: Cities and States

The Second Urbanisation refers to the new phase of city-building and state formation that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and neighbouring regions, gradually spreading across the Subcontinent. It is called 'second' because it followed India's First Urbanisation — the Harappan (Indus/Sindhu-Sarasvatī) civilisation. The chapter notes that this second phase has continued right up to today.

A janapada was an early territorial state in India, formed when clans or groups of people sharing a common language and customs settled in a particular region. The word comes from Sanskrit: 'jana' means people and 'pada' means foot, so a janapada is 'where the people have set foot,' meaning where they have settled down. Each janapada was led by a rājā who took advice from an assembly of elders.

Although different ancient texts give different lists, the most frequent count is sixteen mahājanapadas. They extended from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and to Aśhmaka in central India, close to the Godavari River. Many were concentrated in the fertile Ganga plains, where agriculture, iron ore and trade networks helped them grow.

The chapter names Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti as the most powerful mahājanapadas. Magadha was located in part of today's Bihar, Kosala in part of today's Uttar Pradesh, and Avanti in part of today's Madhya Pradesh. Their capitals were well-fortified cities, several of which continue as living cities more than 2,500 years later.

The sabhā and samiti were assemblies or councils in each janapada where matters concerning the clan were discussed; most members were elders of the clan. The rājā was not supposed to rule independently but was expected to take advice from this assembly, along with ministers and administrators. According to some texts, an incompetent ruler could even be removed by the assembly, though the chapter notes such data from this remote period is incomplete.

Unlike the monarchies where a hereditary rājā held ultimate authority, Vajji (also called Vṛijji) and Malla had a different system in which the sabhā or samiti held more power and took important decisions through discussion and, if necessary, through vote — including the selection of the rājā. This means these mahājanapadas, called gaṇas or sanghas, were not monarchies, and scholars often call them 'early republics,' among the earliest such systems in the world.

Iron tools became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE, making agriculture possible on a much bigger scale than before. Iron also made better weapons than bronze — lighter and sharper swords, spears, arrows and shields — which mattered as neighbouring mahājanapadas sometimes went to war. The chapter explains that iron metallurgy was one of the key innovations that supported the growth of cities and states in this period.

Punch-marked coins were India's first coins, made of silver — a soft metal into which symbols could be 'punched,' giving them their name. The need for coins arose from growing trade across regions. Later, coins of copper, gold and other metals were also made. Generally each mahājanapada issued its own coins, but coins from neighbouring regions were accepted and exchanged in trade as well.

Jāti refers to a community of people sharing a specific professional occupation; skills were transmitted from generation to generation, and a jāti could further subdivide into sub-jātis with their own customs regarding marriage, rituals or food. Varṇa is a broader concept from Vedic texts, with four categories: Brahmins (knowledge and rituals), Kshatriyas (defence and warfare), Vaishyas (trade, business or agriculture) and Shudras (artisans, craftspeople, workers or servants). Together they form the varṇa–jāti system that structured Indian society.

The word 'caste' comes from a Portuguese word, casta. Portuguese travellers to India in the 16th century CE used it as they tried to make sense of Indian society. While a few scholars apply 'caste' to varṇas, most take it to refer to jātis; others consider 'caste' to mean the whole varṇa–jāti system.

These were two major trade and communication routes that opened up during the 1st millennium BCE. The Uttarapatha connected the northwest regions to the Ganga plains and all the way to eastern India. The Dakṣhiṇapatha started from Kauśhāmbī (near Prayagraj) and crossed the Vindhya Range of hills to proceed south. Many lateral roads also connected important ports on the western and eastern coasts.

Cities in the southern regions of the Subcontinent began emerging from about 400 BCE. Around this time three kingdoms came into existence — the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pānḍyas. The southern regions were rich in resources such as precious and semiprecious stones, gold and spices, so they traded not only within India but also with kingdoms and empires overseas. Ancient Tamil literature also mentions these kingdoms and some of their kings.

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