Summary
This chapter is about the Age of Reorganisation — the long period after the Maurya empire broke up around 185 BCE — when many new kingdoms rose across India, competed for power, and produced remarkable art, trade networks, and cultural exchanges. It covers dynasties such as the Shungas, Satavahanas, Chedis, Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, and Kushanas.
After the last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by Pushyamitra Shunga, the empire split into many competing kingdoms. Scholars call this the 'age of reorganisation' because existing regions were constantly being reorganised into new kingdoms. The chapter traces dynasties from within the subcontinent — Shungas, Satavahanas, Chedis, and the three southern kingdoms (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas) — and from outside it — Indo-Greeks, Shakas, and Kushanas. Despite political conflict, this era saw flourishing trade including with the Roman Empire, the rich Sangam literature of south India, the Yoga Sutras compiled by Patanjali, Sanskrit literature, and the rise of the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art that blended Indian and Greek styles.
Key points & formulas
- 01The Maurya empire ended around 185 BCE when Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated the last Maurya emperor and founded the Shunga dynasty, which revived Vedic rituals and patronised art — the Bharhut Stupa in present-day Madhya Pradesh, with carved railings depicting the Buddha's life, is one of the finest examples of Shunga art.
- 02The Satavahanas ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE, traded as far as the Roman Empire (exporting spices, textiles, sandalwood, ivory, and gold-plated pearls), and left inscriptions in Brahmi script containing numerals that partly resemble modern digits.
- 03In the south, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas competed for power and produced Sangam literature — the oldest in south India — a collection of poems expressing love, heroism, and generosity; the famous epic Silappadikaram (The Tale of the Anklet) belongs to this tradition.
- 04The Chola king Karikala built the Kallanai (Grand Anicut), a water diversion system on the Kaveri river that enabled more land to be farmed and earned the area the name 'rice bowl of the South'; restored many times, it is still in use today.
- 05King Kharavela of the Chedis, a devoted follower of Jain teachings, had the Hathigumpha inscription carved in the Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar to record his achievements; he described himself as a 'respector of every sect and repairer of every temple.'
- 06Foreign invaders — Indo-Greeks, Shakas, and Kushanas — entered through the northwest and were gradually absorbed into Indian culture, as seen in the Gandhara school of art (grey-black schist stone, Greco-Roman style, realistic Buddha images) and the Mathura school (red sandstone, distinctly Indian style, Indian deities).
- 07The Shaka Samvat calendar, developed during Shaka rule and 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, was adopted as India's National Calendar in 1957.
- 08Patanjali compiled the Yoga Sutras during this period, and Sanskrit became the preferred language for philosophical and literary works, including the composition of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
Frequently asked questions
01Why is the post-Maurya era called the 'Age of Reorganisation'?
Scholars call it the 'age of reorganisation' because after the Maurya empire broke up, existing regions were constantly being reorganised into new kingdoms that competed to become powerful. The map of India changed significantly during this age, as did people's lives.
02Who ended the Maurya empire and what happened next?
The last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga. This led to the breakup of the Maurya empire and the rise of many new kingdoms across the subcontinent, including tributary kingdoms that had earlier been under Maurya overlordship.
03What was the ashvamedha yajna and which rulers performed it?
The ashvamedha yajna was a Vedic ritual in which a horse accompanied by soldiers was set free to wander; any territory the horse crossed unchallenged became part of the king's empire. Pushyamitra Shunga performed it to establish himself as the most powerful ruler. A Satavahana widow queen also performed this and other Vedic rituals, as recorded in inscriptions at the Naneghat caves near Pune.
04What is the Bharhut Stupa and why is it significant?
The Bharhut Stupa is located in present-day Madhya Pradesh. It was probably built during Ashoka's time, but the Shungas added beautifully carved railings and reliefs depicting stories from the Buddha's life. These are considered some of the earliest examples of Buddhist art.
05What were the Satavahanas known for?
The Satavahanas ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE, with capitals at Amaravati and Pratishthana (Paithan). They were known for active maritime trade with the Roman Empire — exporting spices, textiles, sandalwood, ivory, and gold-plated pearls — for agriculture in the Krishna-Godavari river system, and for patronising literature, art, and culture. Their coins, found from Gujarat to Andhra Pradesh, often depicted ships.
06What is Sangam literature and why is it important?
Sangam literature is the oldest literature in south India. The word 'sangam' (from Sanskrit sangha) means 'association' or 'coming together' and refers to an assembly of poets. It consists of several anthologies of poems and is an important source for historians studying the society and culture of that period. The poetry expresses personal emotions like love and societal values like heroism and generosity.
07What was the Grand Anicut (Kallanai) and who built it?
The Grand Anicut, also called Kallanai, is a complex water diversion system built by the Chola king Karikala. Located downstream of Srirangam island, it diverted waters from the Kaveri river to the central and southern parts of the Kaveri delta, enabling more land to be brought under cultivation and earning the area the name 'rice bowl of the South'. It has been restored several times and is still in use today.
08What is the Hathigumpha inscription and what does it tell us?
The Hathigumpha inscription is carved in Brahmi script in one of the Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar. It records the Chedi king Kharavela's accomplishments year after year, including his military campaigns and works for the welfare of his people. Kharavela declared himself 'accomplished in extraordinary virtues, respector of every sect and repairer of every temple,' showing a tradition of protecting all schools of thought.
09How are the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art different?
The Gandhara school emerged in the western regions of Punjab and blended Greco-Roman elements with Indian features; sculptures were made from grey-black schist stone and are known for realistic Buddha images with flowing robes. The Mathura school developed in the Mathura region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, used red sandstone, and is more distinctly Indian in style — depicting Indian deities like Kubera, Lakshmi, Shiva, Buddha, yakshas, and yakshinis with fuller figures and smooth modelling.
10What is the Shaka Samvat calendar?
The Shaka Samvat calendar was developed during the rule of the Shakas (also called Indo-Scythians). It is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar (79 years behind from January to March). It was adopted as India's National Calendar in 1957 and is still officially used alongside the Gregorian calendar.
11Who were the Kushanas and what was their contribution?
The Kushanas, originally from central Asia, entered India probably in the 2nd century CE. At their peak, their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India. Their most powerful ruler, Kanishka, encouraged art and culture. The Kushanas controlled significant sections of the Silk Route, which helped trade connect India with other parts of Asia and the West. Art from this period, particularly the Gandhara school, blends Greco-Roman and Indian elements.
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