Chapter 3 — Landforms and Life

The three main types of landforms are mountains, plateaus and plains. Mountains are much higher than the surrounding landscape with steep slopes and a narrow summit. Plateaus rise from surrounding land and have a more or less flat surface. Plains are extensive flat or gently undulating areas generally not more than 300 metres above sea level.

Both mountains and hills rise above the surrounding landscape, but hills have a lower height, less steep slopes and rounded tops compared to mountains. The chapter notes that highlands with these gentler features are called hills, while mountains are recognised by their broad base, steep slopes and narrow summit.

Terrace farming is the practice of cutting steps into a mountain slope to create flat areas for cultivation. It is done because mountain terrain is usually rugged with steep slopes, which makes regular farming possible only in some valleys. By cutting terraces, farmers create level surfaces where crops can be grown on the hillside.

The chapter mentions Mount Everest (between Tibet/China and Nepal), Kanchenjunga (between Nepal and the Indian state of Sikkim), Mount Aconcagua (South America, highest peak of the Andes), Mount Kilimanjaro (eastern Africa, an isolated mountain not part of any range), Mont Blanc (Western Europe, highest mountain of the Alps) and Anamudi/Anai Peak (Kerala, highest mountain in south India).

The Tibetan Plateau is called the 'Roof of the World' because of its very high average altitude of 4,500 metres. It is also the largest and highest plateau in the world and stretches nearly 2,500 km from east to west.

Food crops grown in the Ganga plain include rice, wheat, maize, barley and millets. Fibre crops such as cotton, jute and hemp are also grown there. Traditional agriculture in the region has been mostly rainfed, though irrigation through canals and groundwater pumping has increased in recent decades.

The chapter lists several natural and human-made challenges: landslides (sudden collapse of earth or rock from a mountainside), avalanches (sudden fall of snow or ice), flash floods (sudden local floods caused by cloudbursts), heavy snowfall, cold weather and uncontrolled tourism that puts pressure on the fragile mountain environment.

Bachendri Pal was the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest, achieving this feat in 1984. She started climbing from a young age and led many women's climbing expeditions. She was awarded the Padma Shri in 1984 and the Padma Bhushan in 2019.

The Chhota Nagpur Plateau has huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese. The chapter explains that plateaus in general are rich in mineral deposits and have been called 'storehouses of minerals', which makes mining a major activity on plateaus.

Plains become fertile through the deposit of sediments by rivers. Rivers originating in mountain ranges collect particles of rock, sand and silt called sediments. These sediments are carried down to the plains and deposited there, making the soil very fertile and ideal for growing crops of all kinds.

The chapter mentions Hundru Falls on the Subarnarekha River in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Jog Falls on the Sharavati River in the Western Ghats, and Nohkalikai Falls which drop 340 metres from the Cherrapunji Plateau in Meghalaya. The Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River in southern Africa is also mentioned as a famous plateau waterfall.

The five tiṇais are a classification of landscapes in ancient Tamil Sangam poetry. Kuriñji covers mountainous regions (hunting and gathering); Mullai covers grassland and forests (cattle rearing); Marudam covers fertile agricultural plains (farming); Neydal covers coastal regions (fishing and seafaring); and Pālai covers arid, desert-like regions (journeying and fighting). Each landscape was also linked to specific deities and moods or emotions.

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